Development

Following the initial euphoria of the 2011 Arab Spring, citizens in countries such as Libya, Egypt and Tunisia set about the hard work of reforming and rebuilding their public institutions. One central question, particularly in the wake of the Muslim Brotherhood’s electoral victory in Egypt and the killing of the U.S. ambassador in Libya, remains how truly democratic these societies will become. Will they favor Western-style politics, Islamist rule or a distinctive hybrid?

It is a commonplace that bribery seems rife in the developing world. In richer countries, however, legal lobbying is the preferred method of operation for those trying to overcome rules. As a country’s industry advances, the preferred mode of transaction might naturally switch to lobbying. So why does corruption seem more stubbornly persistent in the developing world, despite economic progress?

Women played a significant role in the 2011 protests in Egypt. More educated and outspoken than women of earlier generations, they will continue to have an impact on Egyptian society, evidence suggests, in a post-revolution landscape.

The use of genetically modified corn seeds has been the subject of much debate, as questions persist over cost-effectiveness, yield, long-term effectiveness and the impact on non-GE plants. The controversy runs deep enough that some countries continue to ban genetically modified crops, yet they make up the majority of corn, soybeans and cotton grown in the United States.

As the economic output and populations of China, India and Brazil grow, the countries’ energy consumption will continue to rise. Because traditional energy sources such as oil and coal are both nonrenewable and limited, these countries are pushing to develop new forms of alternative energy. Given that the United States remains the highest per capita consumer of energy, the need for sustainable energy sources is considered by many domestically to be a vital national interest.

One theory for how to best help developing countries is to increase their inward flow of foreign direct investment (FDI). However, identifying the conditions that best attract such investment flow is difficult, since foreign investment varies greatly across countries and over time. Knowing what has influenced these decisions and the resulting trends in outcomes can be helpful for governments, non-governmental organizations, businesses, and private donors looking to invest in developing countries.

Since the end of the Cold War in 1989, the rights of domestic news organizations have expanded in many countries, though there have been some notable counterexamples. Scholars have linked such “media freedom” to wider issues of economic performance and effectiveness of governance, and to respect for human rights.

A number of criteria have been developed to measure countries’ degree of “good government”; these can include the capacity to receive aid, manage foreign direct investment or initiate trade agreements. Many of these criteria have a fixed model of what constitutes “good” and “bad” government, and the judgments that follow can have real-world consequences.

Since the events of the 2011 Arab Spring were set in motion, a debate has continued over how powerful a role the Internet itself can play in bringing about tangible social change. Evidence may continue to emerge that challenges any current theory. But in any case, new intellectual frameworks are required to analyze this question and guide further study.